The Culture of Ghana - 1238 Words

Culture is one of the most relevant elements that can define not only a society but also a country’s cumulative beliefs and system. Often noted as the origins of a country, culture is definitive in the sense that it harbors all the elements that can provide justification on the traditions and norms set by the society for its members. More often than not, the society members follow norms in order to create a harmonious community, and the beliefs and the traditions serve as the poles or grounding rules for each member to follow. Culture is very dynamic in the way that it can change over a variety of foreign influences but what is permanent about it is that original elements about it often lingers with the influences, therefore making it multi-faceted and broad. More importantly, culture serves as an individual and unique trait each society has, and therefore sets it apart from other countries and other societies. In the form of African culture, the country Ghana has its own defi nitive form that is somehow similar with other African country’s culture but different in various elements. This is why it is the most intrinsic characteristic of Ghananese culture; with its deployment of systems, structures and social elements, it is set apart from other African cultures. But what should be given importance is its original context, which also sprung from the African importance of culture. According to Steven J. Salm and Toyin Falola (2002), â€Å"Africans regard culture as essential toShow MoreRelatedGhana Culture : The Five Elements Of The Ghana Culture767 Words   |  4 PagesThe research that I will be doing is about the Ghana Culture. I will be using secondary sources of data to use in my paper. I will be explaining the five elements that the Ghanaians have in their culture. I chose to do this culture because I have always been interested in the way that the Ghanaians dance, dress, and how they celebrate in their culture. In the Ghanaians culture, they symbolize things that represent their culture the most. The symbol that they symbolize is their flag. Each color ofRead MoreThe Culture And Customs Of Ghana1714 Words   |  7 Pagesspecific communities. For example, Kente clothes are made from cotton, silk, and raffia. Salm and Falola claim that, The cultures and customs of Ghana today are a product of diversity in indigenous form, influenced by a long history of Islamic and European contacts. They represent a dynamic process of adoption and adaptation, incorporating elements of outside cultures. The Ghana Boy tunics are a good example of how African artists combined elements of traditional African work with European elementsRead MoreThe Culture And Values Of Ghana1094 Words   |  5 Pagesfrom culture to culture. For our project, we chose to research the traditions and values of the West African Ghanaian women. To successfully to this, we will first provide some geographic information on Ghana. Ghana is located in West Africa and is estimated to be the closest country to the center of the earth. The capital of Ghana is Accra. A 2012 census in Ghana estimated that the population of Ghana is divided into 75 ethnic groups with females outnumbering males 51% to 49% (Embassy of Ghana andRead MoreAn Essential Part Of Ghana African Culture1301 Words   |  6 Pages Waist pendants were an essential part of the Benin African culture. Benin was located in modern day Nigeria, and they had a very advanced culture with various resources. The Benin Kingdom mainly existed between the years 1440-1897 before the invasion from British soldiers, and is the capitol of the former Edo Kingdom. The city of Benin still exists today. The head of the Benin kingdom was called an oba, which translates to King, and was highly revered.1 Many brass and ivory carvings of the obaRead MoreDifferences Between Sierra Leone And Ghana1580 Words   |  7 PagesOsburn COL 299 10 July 2017 Comparing Cultures There are elements present in every culture, the roots of which make each country unique. To compare and show how similar Sierra Leonean and Ghanaian cultures are, I will focus on the emergence of each nation, as well as each culture’s national identity. The historical backgrounds found within the countries of Sierra Leone and Ghana have shaped each of their national identities. Exploring how Sierra Leone and Ghana emerged as individual nations is crucialRead MoreGhan A Nation Of The World1470 Words   |  6 PagesGhana is a nation in the developing world. It is continuously ranking among the top three countries in Africa for â€Å"freedom of speech†. Ghana was the first nation in the south of the Saharan Dessert where Europeans came to trade in. They traded slaves after the gold trade. Regardless of being rich in raw materials, and endowed with an effective civil service. Ghana suffered from corruption soon after their independence in 1957. A few of Ghana’s gl obalization includes their culture, economy, and LifestyleRead MoreGhan A Country Of Many Firsts1340 Words   |  6 Pages Ghana Ghana is a country of many firsts: the first to win a medal in the Olympics for football, first to be a sub- saharan country, and first to use seashells as money. Ghana is a West African country that boarders the Gulf of Guinea, Cote d’ Ivoire, and Togo. It’s comparable to the U.S state, Oregon at 92,100 square miles. Ghana, the richest country in West Africa, once used sea shells as money. Ghana geographically is on the west coast located directly between Senegal and Cameroon. Ghana’s climateRead MoreGhan A Nation Of The Developing World1460 Words   |  6 Pages Ghana is a nation in the developing world. Ghana is continuously ranking among the top three in Africa for â€Å"freedom of speech†. Ghana was the first place in sub-Saharan Africa where Europeans arrived to trade. They traded first in gold, next in slaves. According to BBC, Ghana likewise was the first black African nation to achieve independence from the British colonial power. Despite being rich in mineral resources, and endowed with effective civil service. Ghana fell victim to corruption soon afterRead MoreGhan A Country Of Many Firsts1339 Words   |  6 Pages Ghana is a country of many firsts: the first to win a medal in the Olympics for football, first to be a sub- saharan country, and first to use seashells as money. Ghana is a West African country that boarders the Gulf of Guinea, Cote d’ Ivoire, and Togo. It’s comparable to the U.S state, Oregon at 92,100 square miles. Ghana, the richest country in West Africa, once used sea shells as money. Ghana geographically is on the west coast located directly between Senegal and Cameroon. Ghana’s climateRead MoreBuilding A Construction Of Ghana1500 Words   |  6 PagesEstablishing a construction company in Ghana is very important because of the ongoing growing of Ghana. Ghana wants to become more modern day and start building more houses and more buildings in its cities. Moving an construction company over to Ghana is a good idea because they need construction material to build. The business endeavor is to create a company that will provide construction material to contractors that are doing construction on houses and buildings. The planned market is to sell or

Race Determined Inclusion and Exclusion in America

Historically, America has been a nation that participates in discriminatory practices based on perceived race. European Americans have always considered themselves as a privilege group, therefore excluded from the discriminatory practice against other minorities. Mexicans, Filipinos, Blacks (African Americans) and Native Americans, were excluded from first class citizenship, and were and still are in some cases America’s victims of separatism. Americans of European descent fought to keep their status quo though eugenics, racial discrimination and unfair laws and practices. Therefore, many obstacles were put in place to disenfranchised minorities through strategically bigoted activities and politically orchestrated legislation. Some of these things included inequality in economics, living conditions, immigration repression, and demeaning treatment supported by white European Americans. All of these practices simply because of external features, or known background regardless of personal appearance. In the book Racial Formation in United States, Michael Omi and Howard Winant attempt to explain and examine specific models of racial theory in America. These models are categorized into three specific racial theories, ethnicity, class and nation. The ethnicity based theory explains that all races will be treated as immigrants, and in time will be accepted in society as equal citizens. The class based theory approaches race based on social economic standing. The biologicalShow MoreRelatedShould Privilege Be Defined As An Exceptional Advantage, Favor, Immunity, Or Right?1594 Words   |  7 PagesStates is through race. When the Europeans first landed in the United States, they brought along their culture, traditions, religions, and their perceptions of the world. It is their idea of the worldview of races which led to the society that we have today. The idea of the race worldview remained embedded in the American society and thus certain groups of people were allowed to have certain privileges. The question of who was able to enjoy the rights and privileges of white America came forward. InRead MoreWhy Compare Kincaids Girl and Olsens I Stand Here Ironing1339 Words   |  6 Pagesaccount of 1930s and 1940s as it follows the life of the author from birth till early adolescence. During this period the USA suffered one of its deepest crises and also participated in WWII. We can easily presume how poor the conditions of life in America were at that time. Furthermore, the story itself tells us a lot about the difficulties the young mother had to face while raising her daughter. â€Å"Girl† is probably set in 1960s, since we know Kincaid was born in 1949. The place of the story is AntiguaRead MorePast Influences that Marked Brazils Contemporary Society1679 Words   |  7 Pagesarticulatory principle for an immense diversity of social movements that have adopted the language of right as a way of expressing their demands† and because of this, citizenship is a â€Å"crucial weapon not only in the struggle against social and economic exclusion and disparity but also in the broadening of dominant conceptions of politics.†[1] This paper will argue that the economic and social inequalities faced by many inferior populations in Brazil are an effect of the neoliberal concept of citizenshipRead MoreRace and Culture in the Literary Work of Wendy Chang and Junot Diaz1718 Words   |  7 PagesRace and culture, constantly interrelated, have long been key components of everyday life and social order in society. With many various cultures and races slowly churning into a large melting pot, there are still many limitations to which particular races have inherited constant discrimination and marginalization. In a country that pride’s itself of liberty and justice for all, there remain instances of discrimination that are faced by individuals that don’t fit the â€Å"model minority†. Legal and culturalRead MoreAnalysis Of The Article Racialized Discourses And Ethnic Epistemologies By Gloria Ladson Billings871 Words   |  4 Pagesworldview and knowledge. The concept of race is created in the West, new languages and truths were established about it. When the Europeans set up the concept of race, they only included three races, which were ‘Caucasoid’, ‘Negroid’ and ‘Mongoloid’ during the Middle Ages. As a result, it left out the people of the Americas, Indian subcontinent, East and Southeast Asia, and Oceania. Historically, Blacks and Whites had been forced to be separated because of their race and skin color. Washington, JeffersonRead MoreThe Naturalization Process During The Late 19th And Early 20th Century1486 Words   |  6 Pagesknowledge as racial meters that result in the development of social hierarchies. Costa Najour was a Syrian immigrant who came to America from Mt. Lebanon. In 1909, Najour went to a federal court in Georgia to prove he was white and become a citizen. This is the first case that someone who applied for citizenship as a â€Å"white person† was granted it. Najour believed that race was much more important than skin color in defining his â€Å"whiteness†. Furthermore, he used the scientific evidence that â€Å"CaucasiansRead MorePurpose Of The Disability Voting Rights1503 Words   |  7 Pagesinnovative solutions to give greater political voice to the disabled communities. This will also improve the perceptions of the disabled communities among the elected. Non-Partisan Organization Philadelphia was â€Å"the worst-governed city in America† in the year 1903 (Seventy, 2017). The existing civic organizations were helpless before the corrupted system. The Republican Machine controlled the politics and the government in 1900s through fraud, graft, and political favoritism. The CommitteeRead MoreThe Social Problem Of Voting Rights1668 Words   |  7 PagesStates constitutions had no provisions that defined who was eligible to vote. There were no national standards for voting rights and the criteria for eligibility was determined by individual states. The lack of international standards left the rights of minority groups unprotected and led to the discrimination against women and minority races. In 1776 the law only allowed property owners right to vote and prohibited women and non-whites from voting. The inequalities in voting rights are historically associatedRead MoreThe Practices and Processes Shaping Racism in British Society1833 Words   |  8 Pagesrac ism in British society today must be looked at as a series of ideologies, that have been built into British institutions and organisations as a consequence of the historical contexts of colonialism and imperialism. However, ideas of race and differences between races are rooted even earlier than this, even as far back in history as the 16th century. Even though racism can operate on levels of both individual racism and institutional racism, it is the later that will be looked at in this essay togetherRead MoreAbercrombie Fitch, The Upscale Clothing Retailer Essay1725 Words   |  7 Pagesdisability, sex, or ethnicity can be a problem. Abercrombie aims for an â€Å"American† look, while other known retailers such as HM and the Gap focuses on hiring good looking people from many backgrounds and races. Abercrombie’s old concepts of â€Å"lookism† and â€Å"exclusion’ is outdated as people today value inclusion and a diverse world. Abercrombie and Fitch executives could do an array of things in order to attempt to solve the issue of â€Å"Looksism†. One of the first actions AF could take is to hire people from

Ways in which adults can effectively support free essay sample

There are a number of ways in which adults can effectively support and extend beech, language and communication development in children during early years. Firstly, It Is Important for us to adapt our language according to the childs age, needs and ablest. Some children who have English as a second language may require us to point to objects (www. earlylearnlngconsultancy. Co. UK). For example, when we are speaking to babies or toddlers, we would simplify the sentences for them to understand, whereas the older the children we can begin to use harder sentences.For example, when handing out cookies, too child who is 1 or 2 years of age we may old out a cookie and say the word, whereas to an older children we would say Would you Like a cookie? . Secondly; we must give children the time and opportunity to communicate. It is important to give children time to think about what has been said to them and if they dont answer straight away we must be patient and not answer for them (www. We will write a custom essay sample on Ways in which adults can effectively support or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page earlylearningconsultancy. Co. UK). Some children may require us to sounds them out but then we must get them to copy and blend the sounds together whilst giving them time to process what we are telling them.As mentioned in (www. Mendaciousness. Org. Skull other ways we can effectively support children and extend their speech, language and communicate may include: using simple repetitive language for familiar activities, comment on what children are doing in their play session, and we must try to expand what they say by adding a few words ourselves. For example a child might shout Bus! we should reply Thats right, Its a big, red bus. Some children may find using visual clues and reminders very useful in helping them follow routine and learn new work and concepts (www. Foundations. Org. UK).We an use pictures of the children themselves doing the activities, to represent different activities in the say as a visual timetable. These pictures can also be used to help children to choose activities. Language which helps support children when words dont sound clear. This includes giving them praise for trying them sating the word back to them, so if a child says tar we can smile and say yes, car, clever boy. Interacting can also be playing games, reading and singing songs. Getting children engaged in books from an early age can help with their reading and writing skills and an extend their language skills and vocabulary (www. arlylearningconsultancy. Co. UK). Singing simple songs and nursery rhymes develop childrens attention and listening skills and their awareness of rhymes and the word patterns. As mentioned in (www. earlylearningconsultancy. Co. UK), play and activity encourage children to communicate and practice their communication skills as they will need to communicate with their playmates and others so it creates a situation where they can practice and develop their speech, language and communication skills.

The Tragic Character In Oedipus The King free essay sample

Essay, Research Paper A tragic character is a classical poetry play in which a baronial rule character is brought to destroy basically as a effect of some utmost quality that is both illustriousness and his ruin. In the Oedipus Plays of Sophocles by Paul Roche, describes Oedious as a prorper male monarch, powerful individual, and really respectful human being for a good tragic hero. # 8220 ; Children, kids! Scions of the ancient Cadmean line! What is this significance of his mobing around my pess this holds out of oil boughs all wreathed in suffering? # 8221 ; ( sophocles.pg.23 ) this quotation mark by Oedipus, shows that he is a proper male monarch. A proper male monarch must be a individual who is respected by people and dramas in an of import function ina society. Oedipus resembles a proper male monarch because he is apprehensible, he will non allow his people suffer and wanted to treated every bit by his people. We will write a custom essay sample on The Tragic Character In Oedipus The King or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page He aware of his responsibilities and order for his people to respoect him. For illustration when Oedipus found out that his people neede him to salvage the metropolis of Thebess. Oedipous listens to what his people demands are and attempts to work out them the best manner he can. Oedipus is a powerful individual who has the authorization to make anything he wants or desires and has the support of his people. For illustration when the chorus chooses to back up Oedipus to salvage the metropolis for the Thebes, he has power to direct Creon to Delphi to salvage the metropolis from the pestilence. Besides, he has the power to work out the enigma of killing the old male monarch named Laius by publishing a policy statement to assist happen the slayer in the first episode in the book. # 8220 ; So, Oedipus, you most respected male monarch # 8221 ; ( sophocles.pg.24 ) This tells us that Oedipus is a respectful perosn to his people, this was said by one of his people. he is a male monarch who treats elderly like any other people, he wants to be respected by his people by speaking to them and recognizing them. He regard he has the power to make what he wants but he merely uses his power to make what is good for his people. he besides esteem his people by informing and giving them their demands. In conlusion, Oedipus is a good a traguc hero who is a proper male monarch, powerful individual, and respectful human being.

Biography of Elizabeth of York, Queen of England

Biography of Elizabeth of York, Queen of England Elizabeth of York (February 11, 1466–February 11, 1503) was a key figure in Tudor history and in the Wars of the Roses. She was the daughter of Edward IV and Elizabeth Woodville; Queen of England and Queen Consort of Henry VII; and the mother of Henry VIII, Mary  Tudor, and Margaret Tudor, the only woman in history to have been daughter, sister, niece, wife, and mother to English kings. Fast Facts: Elizabeth of York Known For: Queen of England, mother of Henry VIIIBorn: February 11, 1466 in London, EnglandParents: Edward IV and Elizabeth WoodvilleDied:  February 11, 1503 in London, EnglandEducation: Trained in the palace as a future QueenSpouse: Henry VII  (m. January 18, 1486)Children: Arthur, Prince of Wales (September 20, 1486–April 2, 1502); Margaret Tudor (November 28, 1489–October 18, 1541) who married King James IV of Scotland); Henry VIII, King of England (June 18, 1491–January 28, 1547); Elizabeth (July 2, 1492–September 14, 1495); Mary Tudor (March 18, 1496–June 25, 1533) married King Louis XII of France; Edmund, Duke of Somerset (February 21, 1499–June 19, 1500); and Katherine (February 2, 1503) Early Life Elizabeth of York, known alternatively as Elizabeth Plantagenet, was born on February 11, 1466, at Westminster Palace in London, England. She was the eldest of the nine children of Edward IV, king of England (ruled 1461–1483) and his wife Elizabeth Woodville (sometimes spelled Wydeville). Her parents marriage had created trouble, and her father was briefly deposed in 1470. By 1471, likely challengers to her fathers throne had been defeated and killed. Elizabeths early years were spent in comparative calm, despite the disagreements and battles going on around her. She likely began her formal education in the palace by age 5 or 6, and learned history and alchemy from her father and his library. She and her sisters were taught by ladies-in-waiting, and by observing Elizabeth Woodville in action, the skills and accomplishments considered appropriate for future queens. That included reading and writing in English, mathematics, and household management, as well as needlework, horsemanship, music, and dancing. She spoke some French, but not fluently. In 1469, at the age of 3, Elizabeth was betrothed to George Neville, but it was called off when his father supported Edward VIIs rival, the Earl of Warwick. In August 29, 1475, Elizabeth was 11 and, as part of the Treaty of Picquigny, she became betrothed to Louis XIs son, the Dauphin Charles, who at the time was 5 years old. Louis reneged on the treaty in 1482.   Death of Edward IV In 1483, with the sudden death of her father Edward IV, Elizabeth of York was at the center of the storm, as the eldest child of King Edward IV. Her younger brother was declared Edward V, but because he was 13, his fathers brother Richard Plantagenet was named regent protector. Before Edward V could be crowned, Richard imprisoned him and his younger brother Richard in the Tower of London. Richard Plantagenet took the English crown as Richard III, and had the marriage of Elizabeth of Yorks parents declared invalid, claiming Edward IV had been betrothed before the marriage had occurred. Though Elizabeth of York was by that declaration made illegitimate, Richard III was rumored to have had plans to marry her. Elizabeths mother, Elizabeth Woodville, and Margaret Beaufort, mother of Henry Tudor, a Lancastrian claiming to be heir to the throne, planned another future for Elizabeth of York: marriage to Henry Tudor when he overthrew Richard III. The two princes, the only surviving male heirs of Edward IV, disappeared. Some have assumed that Elizabeth Woodville must have known, or at least guessed, that her sons, the Princes in the Tower, were already dead because she put her efforts into her daughters marriage to Henry Tudor. Henry Tudor Richard III was killed on the battlefield in 1485, and Henry Tudor (Henry VII) succeeded him, declared himself King of England by right of conquest. He delayed some months in marrying the Yorkist heiress, Elizabeth of York, until after his own coronation. They were married in January 1486, gave birth to their first child, Arthur, in September, and she was crowned Queen of England in November 25, 1487. Their marriage established the Tudor dynasty of the British crown. Her marriage to Henry VII brought together the House of Lancaster which Henry VII represented (though he grounded his claim to the crown of England in conquest, not birth), and the House of York, which Elizabeth represented. The symbolism of a Lancastrian king marrying a Yorkist queen brought together the red rose of Lancaster and the white rose of York, ending the Wars of the Roses. Henry adopted the Tudor Rose as his symbol, colored both red and white. Children Elizabeth of York apparently lived peacefully in her marriage. She and Henry had seven children, four surviving to adulthood- a fairly decent percentage for the time. Three of the four became kings or queens in their own right: Margaret Tudor (November 28, 1489–October 18, 1541) who married King James IV of Scotland); Henry VIII, King of England (June 18, 1491–January 28, 1547); Elizabeth (July 2, 1492–September 14, 1495); Mary Tudor (March 18, 1496–June 25, 1533) married King Louis XII of France; Edmund, Duke of Somerset (February 21, 1499–June 19, 1500); and Katherine (February 2, 1503). Their oldest son, Arthur, Prince of Wales (September 20, 1486–April 2, 1502) married Catherine of Aragon, a third cousin of both Henry VII and Elizabeth of York, in 1501. Catherine and Arthur became ill with sweating sickness soon after, and Arthur died in 1502. Death and Legacy Its been surmised that Elizabeth became pregnant again to try to have another male heir for the throne after Arthurs death, in case the surviving son, Henry died. Bearing heirs was, after all, one of the most crucial responsibilities of a queen consort, especially to the hopeful founder of a new dynasty, the Tudors. If so, it was a mistake. Elizabeth of York died in the Tower of London on February 11, 1503, at the age 37, of complications of the birth of her seventh child, a girl named Katherine, who died at birth on February 2. Only three of Elizabeths children survived at her death: Margaret, Henry, and Mary. Elizabeth of York is buried at the Henry VII Lady Chapel, Westminster Abbey. The relationship of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York is not well-documented, but there are several surviving documents which suggest a tender and loving relationship. Henry was said to have withdrawn in sorrow at her death; he never remarried, though it might have been advantageous diplomatically to do so; and he spent lavishly for her funeral, though he was usually quite tight with money. Fictional Representations Elizabeth of York is a character in Shakespeares Richard III. She has little to say there; she is merely a pawn to be married to either Richard III or Henry VII. Because she is the last Yorkist heir (assuming her brothers, the Princes in the Tower, have been killed), her childrens claim to the crown of England will be more secure. Elizabeth of York is also one of the major characters in the 2013 series  The White Queen  and is the key character in 2017 series The White Princess. Elizabeth of Yorks picture is the usual depiction of a queen in card decks. Sources License, Amy. Elizabeth of York: The Forgotten Tudor Queen. Gloucestershire, Amberley Publishing, 2013.Naylor Okerlund, Arlene. Elizabeth of York. New York: St. Martins Press, 2009.Weir, Alison. Elizabeth of York: A Tudor Queen and Her World. New York: Ballantine Books, 2013.

Bonny Lee Bakley, Murdered Wife of Actor Robert Blake

Bonny Lee Bakley, Murdered Wife of Actor Robert Blake Bonny Lee Bakley was not a good girl. She was a con artist who used sex and deception to bilk men- many of the rich and famous- out of their money, and their children out of their inheritance. She was shot to death in May 2001 and her husband at the time, actor Robert Blake, was charged with the crime. Still, there was a long list of other people with a motive. Bakleys Childhood Years Bonny Lee Bakley was born June 7, 1956 in Morristown, New Jersey. As a young girl, her dreams were similar to others her age, to one day become rich and famous. Perhaps her impoverished home helped to drive these fantasies. Or, perhaps the desire to leave her hometown and begin her road to stardom grew deeper after she suffered from sexual abuse by her father. Whatever the cause, her drive for stardom became a blind obsession. Marriage for Profit It is believed that Bakley felt ostracized as a child for being poor. She grew to be an attractive teen. She decided to try modeling, and she signed on with a nearby agency. Through the agency,​ she met an immigrant named Evangelos Paulakis, who was desperate to stay in the U.S. and needed to get married  to do so. Bakley agreed to marry him for a price, but not long after the two shared I dos, Bakley, with the money safely tucked away, ended the marriage, and Paulakis was picked by the authorities and deported. After high school, Bakley headed to New York to begin her climb to stardom. She started calling herself Lee Bonny. She managed to get various small modeling jobs, and even worked as an extra in a few movies. But her goal of becoming a star was not  happening. So, she set her attention on other ways to achieve, if not stardom, the fortune that came with it. Her focus switched from becoming a star to marrying one. Bakleys Sex Scam Business In her mid-twenties, Bakley married her cousin, Paul Gawron, a laborer who was street tough and prone to violent behavior. They had two children who Gawron mainly cared for while Bakley worked toward her new endeavor, a mail-order business that focused on scamming lonely men out of money. Had Bakley not chosen a less-than-desirable avenue, her  entrepreneurial  spirit mixed with her ability to market, organize, and profit in a highly competitive industry could have been admirable. Gawron and Bakley had a twisted and volatile marriage. Bakley, who was busy scamming money from men, sometimes in the couples bedroom, was satisfied to let Gawron stay home. He seemed to enjoy not having to work. But, by 1982, the marriage ended. Bakleys obsession to be in the inner circles of the famous mixed with the fact that she was not getting any younger. This motivated her decision to leave her kids in Gawrons care and head to Memphis, Tennessee, to the door of musical artist, Jerry Lee Lewis. Bakley Stalks Jerry Lee Lewis Bakleys money-making sex schemes coupled with her use of stolen credit cards and identification kept her mobile, and she was able to fly to locations where Jerry Lee Lewis was performing. Bordering stalking, Bakley  would often crash parties and show up at performances just to get in closer to Lewis. Finally, the two met around 1982, and a friendship developed. Jerry Lee Lewis and Bakley remained friends until Bakley became pregnant and told everyone that the childs father was Jerry Lee Lewis and that he was leaving his wife to marry her. When the child was born, Bakley named her  Jerry Lee and put on the ​​birth certificate, father undetermined. The friendship between Lewis and Bakley ended and baby Jerry Lee was sent to live with Bakleys ex-husband and her other children. Later it was discovered that Bakley made death threats against Lewiss wife. Bakleys Anything Goes Policy Bakleys address book filled up with names, some famous and some just rich. Names such as Robert DeNiro, Sugar Ray Leonard, and Jimmy Swaggart were found among the list. Bakleys sex business became bolder, and she advertised in sex magazines that she was a tri-sexual, meaning she would try anything once and her preference was sadomasochism, couples sex, and bisexuality. She swindled men out of hundreds of thousands of dollars with her anything goes claims. Bakley was arrested for trying to write bad checks to the tune of $200,000 and was sentenced to report to a penal farm on weekends for three years. In Arkansas, she was arrested for carrying more than 30 fake identifications and was placed on probation. When she completed her sentence in Tennessee, and her friendship with Lewis was over, she decided it was time to leave the South, and she headed to the land of fame and stardom- Hollywood. Bakley and Robert Blake Tie the Knot Bonny continued running  sex scams in magazines, and dating a few stars, one being Christian Brando. How she and Baretta star Robert Blake met, depends on who you ask. Bakleys sister said they met at a jazz club and bonded from across the room. Blakes attorney said Robert Blake did not even know her name and they had sex in the back of a truck, never in his home. Whatever is the truth, one thing was for certain; it was not a match made in heaven. Shortly after the affair began, Bakley told Blake that she was pregnant. Sources say Bakley was taking fertility pills as a way to trap the star into her web. When the baby was born, she named her  Christian Shannon Brando and listed Brando as the father. A  paternity test later proved the father to be Blake. Bonny Lee and Robert Blake married in November 2000, and Bonny moved into a guest house on the property. Bakleys Murder After only six months of marriage, in May 2001, Blake and Bakley went to dinner at Vitellos Italian Restaurant, where Blake was a regular customer. After dinner, the two walked to their car. According to Blake, he realized he left his revolver at the restaurant and left to retrieve it. When he returned to the car, he found Bakley with a gunshot wound to her head, dying in the front seat. Blake ran for help, but Bakley soon died. After a year of investigations, Blake was arrested and charged with the murder of Bonny Lee Bakley. On March 15, 2005, a jury of seven women and five men deliberated for more than 36 hours before returning a verdict of not guilty in the murder of his wife and not guilty on one count of soliciting someone to murder her.   Although acquitted in criminal court, the Baretta star was not so lucky in civil court, where a verdict does not need to be unanimous.  A civil jury decided 10 to 2 that  the tough-guy actor was behind the slaying and ordered him to pay Bonny Lee Bakley’s four children $30 million. Resources and Further Reading King, Gary C. Murder In Hollywood: The Secret Life and Mysterious Death of Bonny Lee Bakley. St. Martins, 2001.Bloom, Lisa. â€Å"Our Bodies, Ourselves: Clara Harris and Bonny Bakley.† Court TV, The Internet Archive, 13 Mar. 2003.

How successfully were the Soviet authorities able to contain Baltic Essay

How successfully were the Soviet authorities able to contain Baltic nationalism from 1945-1991 - Essay Example Lithuania, Estonia and Latvia are the three countries in the Baltic region, called Baltic States. While Lithuania got independence on 11 March 1990. Estonia and Latvia had declaration of Independence on 20th and 21 August 1991. Lithuanian population of almost 3 million people comprises around 8 percent of Russians, 6 percent of Poles and remaining are the native Lithuanians. The country was independent from the year 1918 until the soviet occupation from 1945 to 1991.(Samuolyte, 2011) After formally incorporating Baltic States into USSR during 1940, Stalin unlashed a wave of terror in these states with systematic destruction of political institutions and prosecution of military as well as cultural persons of importance. In addition, all enterprises and industries were nationalized. While Latvia and Estonia were historically against Germans, their hatred was now directed against Russians, because of above Soviet actions. However, the German occupation of Baltic States also did not meet the aspiration of locals, since Germans treated them as belonging to an inferior race. While Germans were harsher on Lithuanians, their treatment towards Estonians and Latvians was relatively milder. Hence, partisan movement was more active in Lithuania in comparison to Latvian or Estonian movements. However, Baltic States had to make a choice, during World War, for joining either the Germans or the Soviets. Although Germans organized campaigns for volunteer recruitment in Estonia and Latvia, the Red Army of USSR was able to recapture the two States during 1944, followed by capture of Lithuania in 1945. Participating in the World War, Estonia and Latvia lost almost 20 percent of their population. In addition, the Red terror also continued unabated. After the recapture of Baltic States by Soviet Union, authorities tried to collectivize the agricultural farms.

Aspects of Love in Love Songs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Aspects of Love in Love Songs - Essay Example The song has many intriguing special moments in terms of perfect interchange of tempo crescendo and focuses in a way that creates harmony and musicality that makes the song all the more unique and rich in most aspects. The song employs very limited accompaniments and they are each uses rather sparingly appropriately to give the song a clear and prà ©cised feel. The beats, for instance, are specifically light and well-timed with the lyrics to embolden a tender sensation associated with love and romance.The song has a relatively slow romantic rhythm which gives it the completeness and allure associated with love and romance. The slow rhythm is also complementary to the lyrics as it ensures full clarity and heavy articulation that creates the theme of love in a more pronounced and precise way. Not only does it also allow the other accompaniments, especially the violin and acoustic guitar the full incorporation to result in an extremely rich and lulling effect associated with love but a lso ensures sensational and sharp blend that fully maps the lyrics and gives the song a theme so distinct, unique but obviously romantic. The song has a wonderful melody that captures the theme and rhythm in a way the lyrics are easily infused to fully enrich the song. The melody makes the song a little simple so as to easily bring the audience into the participation as it is performed. The accompaniments are a complete harmony with the rich acoustic tune of the guitar setting the stage for a soothing thatching hum of the violin.

Conflict between Free

Conflict between Freewill and Fate Essay Sophocles lived in the 5th Century BC, arguably the age at which the Greeks started questioning the validity of their Gods and Religious beliefs. As a playwright and as a keen social observer (he is credited with winning the maximum number of awards for his plays during his lifetime among his contemporaries), Sophocles might have felt an obligation to emphasize that Fate and Gods were what guided the human life. A healthy respect for Fate was required to accept Life in its entirety. The underlying concept of the story of Oedipus Rex is the all encompassing power of coincidences. One might choose to call it Fate or a deterministic Universe. For Sophocles and all his readers, it is the amazing possibility of symmetry in events. What is Free Will? Freewill is the ability to take independent decisions, and it also includes a deep rooted desire to counter any attempt to predetermine future. Freewill always tends to adopt measures to break loose from any prediction. This tendency to try and break away from any foregone conclusion has been the chief motivation for progress. But, in the limited context of Oedipus Rex, predictions, instigate the freewill to try and rebel. Prominent evidence of this struggle from Oedipus Rex â€Å"An oracle Once came to Laius (I will not say Twas from the Delphic god himself, but from His ministers) declaring he was doomed To perish by the hand of his own son, A child that should be born to him by me. †(lines 713-715) Jocasta and Laius were forewarned through a Prophecy that a son born through their union shall slay Laius. But this only led them to banish the child to be killed in the hope that the prophecy is belied. At the same time, the prophecy to Laius and Jocasta was not complete – it did not talk about the incestuous relationship their son would have with his mother. â€Å"†¦Apollo sent me back Baulked of the knowledge that I came to seek. But other grievous things he prophesied, Woes, lamentations, mourning, portents dire; To wit I should defile my mothers bed And raise up seed too loathsome to behold, And slay the father from whose loins I sprang. †(lines 816-821) Thus was Oedipus forewarned. He had gone to the Oracle to find out if there was any truth in the scandal that was spreading in Corinth that he was not the son of the king Polybus of Corinth. Instead of giving him any clarity on his confusion, the oracle set him on the course of his life that would fulfill the prophecy. When he learnt that he shall commit murder of his father and incest on is mother, Oedipus was still under the impression that Polybus and Dorian were his parents. To avoid any such possibility in his life, Oedipus decided to leave Corinth and that journey (prompted wholly by the prophecy) actually set him on the path to his destiny – A self fulfilling prophecy. These two are the most important manifestations of freewill trying to rebel against a rarely revealed future events of fate. When it is prophesied that certain events of great magnitude or villainous impact are about to happen in the future, it is the absolute nature of the freewill to try and avoid it. Arguments suggesting that Sophocles does not support the supremacy of Fate over Free will Eminent scholar E. R. Dodds in his â€Å"misunderstanding of Oedipus Rex† criticizes the most significant ways of understanding Oedipus Rex. His most important grouse is that the scholars and students alike fall prey to viewing Sophocles’ work through the prisms of philosophical thought processes which were non-existent during Sophocles’ time. Besides, the student community that studies Oedipus Rex tries to ascribe motive where none might have been intended. Point wise rebuttal to Dodds’s arguments Dodds. In his scholarly analysis of the popular misunderstanding of Oedipus Rex puts forth the following points in defense of his arguments. †¢ Sophocles does not intend Oedipus to be a villainous person being punished by Gods for his evil thoughts and actions. †¢ Sophocles does not intend Oedipus to be the prototype Greek tragic hero, whose one tragic flaw creates all the tragic consequences in the drama. †¢ Sophocles does not intend to state that there is no scope for free will and that the Fate reigns supreme. The first point of the argument is valid as Sophocles designs the character of Oedipus as heroic and it is prominently mentioned in most conversations of the stand alone characters and the chorus. His valor, his compassion and his ability to seek truth even if it be detrimental to his own self are heroic characteristics designed to evoke a mixture of admiration for his strength of character and sympathy for the travails he undergoes. The chorus sing the virtues of the king in unequivocal terms and all the incidents that lead to the story of Oedipus Rex establish his character as admirable, if not entirely beyond reproach. (his suspicion of his brother-in-law might be a lapse, but not a flaw of character) â€Å"Upraise, O chief of men, upraise our State! Look to thy laurels! for thy zeal of yore Our countrys savior thou art justly hailed:†(lines 53-55) Tragic Flaw While trying to relieve Oedipus of the tragic flaw, Dodds tries to reason that the concept of hamartia led by hubris is not evident in the Sophoclean hero. It can be argued that â€Å"Poetics† of Aristotle was a guiding light to playwrights and was a great contributor in shaping Greek literature. But it was within the capacity of the playwrights, creative geniuses all, to reinterpret the laws or rules of Poetics to further their own literary achievements. Even while adding his own interpretation to the concept of tragic flaw, Sophocles remains loyal to the concept per se. The tragic flaw of Oedipus might have been the fact that even when he was forewarned of a future in which his life shall harbor aberrations that the natural universe abhors, he had the courage to try and avoid it. A lesser man would have hid behind the inevitability of Fate or made such drastic changes to his won character as to avoid any such possibility. As Dodds suggests, some of the readers of Oedipus wonder why Oedipus did not give up fighting (even in self defense) against people older than him or in engaging in physical relationship with women older than him. Dodds answers saying that we are not to question what is not in the play. In fact, this might be the tragic flaw of the protagonist. Even after he is warned of the possibility of patricide and incest, Oedipus does not leave behind his virtuous qualities of valor (which leads him to kill Laius) and compassion (which leads him to free Crete from the songstress and take Jocasta as his wife). His sense of righteousness makes him leave Corinth to avoid patricide and incest as he believes Polybus and Dorian to be his parents. This flight is in the strongly held belief that he detests the unnatural acts of patricide and incest and it is within his capacity to avoid them by charting his own course and at the same time retaining his primary character traits of compassion and courage in the face of adversity. Dodds stresses his argument that Sophocles does not intend to make any statement on the finality of Fate and he bases it on two points. †¢ Sophocles is not the victim of any knowledge of determinism which was a later stage philosophical development largely credited to the Kantian determinism. †¢ Sophocles does not intend to preach the supremacy of fate because most incidents of the Play are a result of the exercise of Free will. Sophocles might not have been privy to the philosophical leanings of the determinism of the late 18th and early 19th century. But that does not exclude the gamut of his knowledge from knowing anything of that. In fact philosophical treatises have been, for the most part, clarified pronunciations of the existing thought derived through scientific observation. Determinism as a clear treatise might not have been available to the Greek playwrights but the concepts of a superior design to life which has the power to supersede human interventions has always caught the fascination of creative contributors as evidenced from the earliest forms of literature. The French concept of Poetic justice or the Christian concepts of adequate justice have been used in works earlier than these periods but they have been recognized and grouped only in the last four to five centuries. It is not that the critics are viewing the older works through newer prisms but the scholars are able to identify the evidence of such concepts even in earlier works. This is intellectually honest analysis and it is hard to understand why Dodd argues them to be invalid. For instance, if Pasteur discovered germ theory of disease in the early part of the 19th century, why is it not valid to find that similar germs or micro-organisms were cited in the out break of any contagious disease in the previous centuries. The scientists and philosophers in both cases have only discovered what was either already existent or known in some different form. Therefore, it seems invalid to argue that Sophocles might not have had the supremacy of Fate or determinism in mind when he crafted the symmetrical cycle of events in Oedipus Rex. Dodds says that Oedipus Rex is a manifestation of Free will. In his own words, â€Å"Oedipus might have left the plague to take its course; but pity for the sufferings of his people compelled him to consult Delphi. When Apollos word came back, he might still have left the murder of Laius uninvestigated; but piety and justice required him to act. He need not have forced the truth from the reluctant Theban herdsman; but because he cannot rest content with a lie, he must tear away the last veil from the illusion in which he has lived so long. Teiresias, Jocasta, the herdsman, each in turn tries to stop him, but in vain: he must read the last riddle, the riddle of his own life. The immediate cause of Oedipuss ruin is not Fate or the gods—no oracle said that he must discover the truth—and still less does it lie in his own weakness; what causes his ruin is his own strength and courage, his loyalty to Thebes, and his loyalty to the truth. In all this we are to see him as a free agent: hence the suppression of the hereditary curse. And his self-mutilation and self ¬-banishment are equally free acts of choice. †(Dodds 1985, p71) But these are not manifestations of free will but the struggle of free will against an all powerful fate. All the attempts made by the wise and virtuous Oedipus to avoid the aberrations of nature at his won hand are defeated partly by design and partly by curious coincidences. Conclusion Aristotle’s Poetics suggests that Greek drama is not pure entertainment. It had a communal function to contribute to the development of the community. It is easy to believe that Sophocles was a strict adherent to this principle because he won the most competitions during his lifetime compared to any of his contemporaries. His dramas were popular with both the entertainment-seeking public and the critics. Therefore it is safe to assume that Sophocles tries to establish the depravity of the acts of Patricide and incest through Oedipus. The message that resonates is that if a man of great wisdom, courage and all admirable qualities like Oedipus can fall prey to the hands of fate and commit the most heinous of acts, it is but the duty of the wider public to guard against any temptations that might make them break the natural or communal law. Besides, if Oedipus could not over come his guilt even after trying his entire life to avoid such acts and if the guilt is so all consuming that he blinds himself and seeks exile, it is better for the normal man to watch out for any of these sins. The all-consuming guilt is so over powering that no man can remain nonchalant after committing any of these crimes knowingly or unwittingly. A good moral for a drama that retains its mystique and appeal due to its craftiness and perfect symmetry in the cycle of events References Dodds. E. R. (1985). The Ancient Concept of Progress and Other Essays on Greek Literature and Belief: And Other Essays on Greek Literature and Belief. New York : Oxford University Press (Translated by Malcolm Heath). Aristotle. 1996. Poetics. London: Penguin Classics

Assistive technology for the blind and visually impaired Essay examples

For this research project the topic I have chosen to cover is, â€Å"The impacts of assistive technology for the blind and visually impaired.† I will discuss the benefits and drawbacks to using advanced technology to promote development. I will also look at how assistive technology is being implemented and what effects it has on the visually impaired. There are approximately 10 to 11 million blind and visually impaired people in North America, and their visual abilities vary almost as much as their ethnic, racial, and personal characteristics do. The term "visual impairment" covers a wide range and variety of vision, from blindness and lack of usable sight; to low vision, which cannot be corrected to normal vision with standard eyeglasses or contact lenses; to moderate visual impairment and an inability to read the fine print in a daily newspaper. People who are visually impaired, like everyone else, pursue a great range of interests and careers and participate in the full range of daily activities. They may need to receive training in various adaptive techniques in order to do so, and educational and other services and products are designed and available for this purpose. Federal and state estimates used for planning educational services do not adequately account for the number of children in the United States who are blind or visually impaired. In some cases, only students who are legally blind are reported, ignoring those who have difficulty seeing but do not qualify as "legally" blind. In other instances, children who are visually impaired and have other disabilities such as mental retardation are not counted as visually impaired because they are reported in other federally defined categories, such as multiple disabilities. Tragically, because many 3 professionals lack the specialized skills necessary to recognize and address vision loss, there are also children with visual and multiple impairments whose vision loss remains undiagnosed throughout their school experience. The inadequate count of visually impaired children means that our nation lacks critical information about the need for specialized services for these children, and cannot correctly allocate the specialized resources and ... ...sts despite the fact that education experts agree that for some children, special schools are the best placement option, and that the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act passed by the U.S. Congress makes access to all educational placement options, including special schools, every child's right. As a result of my research I have found that assistive technology is very helpful to blind or visually impaired people when used appropriately. Technology has set new standards and goals for the visually disabled and blind that were never within reach without these new break throughs. The main issues that still need to be dealt with is making sure the new technology is taught correctly to the people who need to use it, and that access to the latest technology is easily attainable. References Van Huijgevoort, Toos. (2002) Coping with a visual impairment through self- investigation. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 96, Abner, G. H. & Lahm, E. A. (2002) Implementation of assistive technology with students who are visually impaired: Teachers’ readiness. Journal of visual impairment and blindness, 96, Assistive technology for the blind and visually impaired Essay examples For this research project the topic I have chosen to cover is, â€Å"The impacts of assistive technology for the blind and visually impaired.† I will discuss the benefits and drawbacks to using advanced technology to promote development. I will also look at how assistive technology is being implemented and what effects it has on the visually impaired. There are approximately 10 to 11 million blind and visually impaired people in North America, and their visual abilities vary almost as much as their ethnic, racial, and personal characteristics do. The term "visual impairment" covers a wide range and variety of vision, from blindness and lack of usable sight; to low vision, which cannot be corrected to normal vision with standard eyeglasses or contact lenses; to moderate visual impairment and an inability to read the fine print in a daily newspaper. People who are visually impaired, like everyone else, pursue a great range of interests and careers and participate in the full range of daily activities. They may need to receive training in various adaptive techniques in order to do so, and educational and other services and products are designed and available for this purpose. Federal and state estimates used for planning educational services do not adequately account for the number of children in the United States who are blind or visually impaired. In some cases, only students who are legally blind are reported, ignoring those who have difficulty seeing but do not qualify as "legally" blind. In other instances, children who are visually impaired and have other disabilities such as mental retardation are not counted as visually impaired because they are reported in other federally defined categories, such as multiple disabilities. Tragically, because many 3 professionals lack the specialized skills necessary to recognize and address vision loss, there are also children with visual and multiple impairments whose vision loss remains undiagnosed throughout their school experience. The inadequate count of visually impaired children means that our nation lacks critical information about the need for specialized services for these children, and cannot correctly allocate the specialized resources and ... ...sts despite the fact that education experts agree that for some children, special schools are the best placement option, and that the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act passed by the U.S. Congress makes access to all educational placement options, including special schools, every child's right. As a result of my research I have found that assistive technology is very helpful to blind or visually impaired people when used appropriately. Technology has set new standards and goals for the visually disabled and blind that were never within reach without these new break throughs. The main issues that still need to be dealt with is making sure the new technology is taught correctly to the people who need to use it, and that access to the latest technology is easily attainable. References Van Huijgevoort, Toos. (2002) Coping with a visual impairment through self- investigation. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 96, Abner, G. H. & Lahm, E. A. (2002) Implementation of assistive technology with students who are visually impaired: Teachers’ readiness. Journal of visual impairment and blindness, 96,

Stylistic Potential of the English Noun

STYLISTIC POTENTIAL OF THE ENGLISH NOUN Table of Contents Introduction-3 Chapter One. Stylistic resources of grammatical units on the basis of the English Noun -6 1. 1 Functions of the language and connotative meanings-7 1. 2 Grammatical Stylistics and Stylistic Grammar-9 1. 3 The meaning of the grammatical form-10 1. 4 Noun in different functional styles -10 1. 5 Stylistic potential of the English noun-11 1. 5. 1 Stylistic potential of the category of gender-11 1. 5. 2 Stylistic potential of the category of number-26 1. 5. Stylistic potential of the category of case-30 1. 5. 4 Stylistic potential of the category of article determination-34 Chapter Two. Analysis of examples taken from fiction on the basis of considered theoretical phenomena-42 2. 1 Analysis of the examples regarding the category of gender-43 2. 2 Analysis of the examples regarding the category of number-53 2. 3 Analysis of the examples regarding the category of case-55 2. 4 Analysis of the examples regarding the cate gory of article determination -59 Conclusions-66 Reference list-69 Introduction Nowadays learning a foreign language implies its active practical mastering, what, in its turn, is quite impossible to do grasping just the system of a language, its standard grammar, language factors which correspond only to the literary norms. Do we always stick to the rules while speaking in our native language? The answer will be no. Why do we break them? By doing this deliberately we may express our attitude to what we are saying. We must â€Å"know the grammar† to make effective word and stylistic choices when we speak and write. At the same time, breaking grammar â€Å"rules† or conventions can be appropriate when rhetorical considerations of audience and purpose call for it. For example, we don't use the same â€Å"grammar† to write an Instant Message as we do to write an English paper. So this aspect of learning any language should not be neglected. The approach that would be more effective in this case is functional. Functions of the language are indissolubly connected with the usage of any of its elements. In other words, the emergence of connotative meanings depends on the functions of the language. The functional approach requires first of all revealing stylistic resources of the language units of its different levels including the grammatical ones. The latter are the object of the new branch of linguastylistics Grammatical Stylistics which basic aim implies study of stylistic means (both expressive and functional) of grammatical units. It can be subdivided into morphological and syntactical one. If the stylistic means of Syntax are not usually cast upon doubt, those of Morphology on the contrary are. In the project there was made an attempt to demonstrate that the reason for this is the result of insufficient study. The other objectives of the present work are: to consider, compare different points of view of linguists concerning the object of study; to organize the material according four nounal categories; to show the stylistic purpose of the usage of studied phenomena; to illustrate connotative meanings of the considered grammatical forms; to put the considered theory into practice. As to the methods used in the project, the following ones have been applied: comparative (there was made an attempt to consider different linguists’ opinions concerning certain linguistic phenomena); analytical (on considering 36 literal texts there were picked up plenty of examples, that were organized according four nounal categories and analyzed basing on the research made in the theoretical part). In the thesis there was made an ttempt to organize the material on the stylistic potential of the English Noun considering the following four nounal categories: the category of gender, the category of number, the category of case and the category of article determination. This work consists of two chapters. The first one deals with the functional approach to learning a foreign language, with the relatively new science Grammatical Stylistic. The purpose of this chapter is to reveal what has caused its appearing by considering different opinions of linguists and to illustrate the s tylistic potential of the English Noun on the basis of some grammatical categories. There were considered rules concerning certain linguistic phenomena, but most of the work is focused on what causes their violation (cases of transposition, neutralization). All the linguistic phenomena discussed in this chapter are illustrated in the second one by means of about 200 cases that have been taken from the works that belong to the belles-lettres style (tales, poetry, short stories) written by such famous English and American writers of 18-20 centuries as Blake W. , ColeridgeS. T. , Munro H. , Poe A. A. , Hemingway E. , Salinger J. D, etc. The aim of this chapter is to put the considered theory into practice showing the way the phenomena have been dealt with work out. The examples are organized also according the four nounal categories mentioned above in the following way: Examples regarding the category of gender (2. 1) (Here we distinguish two groups: (1)A neuter noun used as feminine; (2)A neuter noun used as masculine, explaining the purpose of changing the gender); Examples regarding the category of number (2. ) (In this paragraph we consider some cases when proper, abstract, material nouns are used in the plural form); Examples regarding the category of case (2. 3) (Here we consider cases when inanimate nouns take the s-genitive); Examples regarding the category of article determination (2. 4)(in this paragraph we consider cases when the article is used in the linguistic environment that is alien to it). The analysis is supported by the conclusions after each paragraph. Cha pter One Stylistic Resources of the grammatical units on the basis of the English Noun All the linguistic phenomena we consider in the presented work are the subject of a relatively new science that is Stylistic Morphology. The purpose of this chapter is to reveal what have caused its appearing by considering different opinions of linguists and to illustrate the stylistic potential of the English Noun on the basis of some grammatical categories. The chapter starts with an effective approach in mastering a foreign language, namely with the functional one. Paragraph 1. 1 also illustrates the relationship between connotative meanings and functions of the language. Paragraph 1. is devoted to the appearance of Grammatical Stylistics (Stylistic Grammar), its subdivision and contrary judgments concerning its importance. Then attention is paid to the meaning of the grammatical form and to the notion of transposition. In the subsequent part of the chapter there was made an attempt to organize the material on the stylistic potential of the English noun considering the following nounal categories: the category of gender (1. 5. 1); the category of number (1. 5. 2); the category of case (1. 5. 3); the category of article determination (1. 5. 3). 1. 1 Functions of the language and connotative meanings. Nowadays learning a foreign language implies its active practical mastering. What in its turn is quite impossible to do grasping just the system of a language, its standard grammar, language factors which correspond only to the literary norms. The approach that would be more effective in our case is a functional one. More and more linguists come to agree with it today. The Russian linguist Kojina M. [1] said: The indispensable attention to the peculiarities of the usage of language means is the most necessary condition and the most effective method of teaching (the Russian linguist M. Kojina) This statement requires a deep research in the stylistic usage of language means, taking into consideration both expressive and functional nature of stylistic phenomena. Functions of the language are indissolubly connected with the usage of any of its elements. In other words, the emergence of connotative meanings depends on the functions of the language. As to the latter, there are many different opinions concerning their number. But the absolute majority of linguists agree on the point that the language is polyfunctional. For instance, R. Jackobson distinguishes the following six functions[2]: . Referential, that implies orientation onto the context; 2. Emotive, that is the function of the expression of the speaker’s will, feelings; 3. Poetic; 4. Conative, that implies orientation onto the addressee; 5. Metalingual, that is the function that provides the possibility to speak about the language by means of the language; 6. Phatic, that implies the establishment of the contact . So the emotive function, for example, implies the intention to give way to emotions that, in its turn, causes appearing of the emotionally expressive connotation. Each function gives birth to certain stylistic shadows. And it is no accident that in any living language there exist stylistic connotations with their heterogeneous character that is determined by the variety of the functions, Now going slightly back to the first point of this paragraph we would like to continue it by mentioning that the functional approach in mastering foreign languages requires first of all revealing stylistic resources of the language units of its different levels including grammatical ones. The famous Russian linguist V. Vinogradov[3] once mentioned: The stylistics of the national †¦ language includes al its sides – its phonetic system, Grammar, Word-stock and Phraseology. So far in Stylistics much attention has been paid mainly to the analysis in the field of Word stock. But the success in the late elaboration of the problems of Functional Stylistics allows the linguists to apply the stylistic analysis also to Grammar (including Morphology). 1. 2 Grammatical Stylistics or Stylistic Grammar The modern stage of the development of Linguistics is characterized by appearing of new disciplines at the meeting point of old ones. Grammar and Stylistics are closely connected with each other. As a result, a new branch of linguastylistics has already appeared. That is Grammatical Stylistics or Stylistic Grammar. The basic aim of Grammatical Stylistics implies study of stylistic means (both expressive and functional) of grammatical units. Grammatical Stylistics can be subdivided into morphological and syntactical one. But if the Stylistic means of Syntax are not usually cast upon doubt those of Morphology on contrary are. There are some rather skeptical judgments (A,M. Peshkovski, A. N. Gvozdev, A. Alonso). Acknowledging only Syntactical Stylistics the Spanish linguist Martin Alonso writes[4]: Style is not Morphology; it is connected not with the word but with the sentence. However, this understanding of the Stylistic role of Morphology according to Firsova I. cannot be considered right. [5] It narrows the limits of Stylistics. According to the fact that the object of Stylistics implies the language in the process of its usage the stylistic analysis must embrace all the levels of the language including the morphological one. The observation proves the point of view of those linguists who consider that morphological units have stylistic possibilities and must be the subject of Stylistics. The traditional idea regarding the insignificance of Stylistic recourses of Morphology is the result of insufficient study of the material. Stylistic Morphology has a number of objects of study. This is on the one hand the subsystem of the means of word-building and on the other hand the subsystem of categorical grammatical forms. In the present work we are going to deal with the second one. 1. 3 The meaning of the grammatical form In order to realize better the stylistic potential of the morphological means it is important to consider the structure of their meaning. In this work attention is going to be paid to the grammatical form. Its meaning is not something homogeneous. It can have two elements of meaning: denotative and connotative. The first implies what the grammatical form denotes itself that is its grammatical meaning. The second element implies a complication by any kind of stylistic information (of both emotional and logical character). The connotative meaning of the units of the morphological level implies their ability to evoke in our consciousness secondary associations of emotional or logical character connected with our experience. In some cases the expression of different emotions, evaluation and also of functional stylistic connotations is realized by breaking usual valency relations. What we are speaking about is transposition. That is the divergence between the traditional meaning and that which is prompted by the context on the level of Morphology. And now at this stage let us consider stylistic potential of the English noun on the basis of some grammatical categories. 1. 4 Noun in different functional styles The noun plays a very important role among the morphological resources of any language including, of course, English. That is determined according the Russian linguist Golub I. [6] by: †¢ its semantic features; †¢ quantitative predominance over other parts speech; †¢ potential figurative and expressive means. â€Å"The noun as a part of speech according to Blokh M. I. has the categorial meaning of â€Å"substance† or â€Å"thingness†[7]. It is impossible to express an idea without the latter that is why the use of nouns is an obligatory condition for any speech act. Golub I. mentions that their frequency of use fluctuates depending on the content of the text; the style it belongs to; the peculiarities of author’s intention. Style influences over the choice of words, their forms and their place in the sentence. This correlation of style and words influence greatly over the composition of linguistic units. Nouns are often very much needed in so-called bookish styles: the scientific prose, newspaper, publicistic styles and also that of official documents. That is determined by the necessity to name institutions, persons, their activities, etc. The use in the belles-lettres style is determined by the creative purpose of the author, the way he or she resolves certain stylistic tasks. Here the noun fulfils not only the informative function but also an aesthetic one. A stylistically neutral noun can be involved into the system of expressive means of the language and so it gets expressive connotation[8] . 1. 5. Stylistic Potential of the English noun 1. 5. 1 Stylistic Potential of the category of gender In Old English all nouns were classified as masculine, feminine or sometimes neuter based entirely on grammatical considerations, not on sex or the lack of it. They were referred to by pronoun declensions that also were subdivided according to grammatical gender. Since then the language has undergone a great variety of big and small changes. The system of grammatical gender was not an exception. Since the 12th to 15th centuries most of the gender distinctions has disappeared. [9] Basing on the fact that the noun in Contemporary English does not possess any special gender forms and the accompanying adjective, pronoun, article does not agree with the head –noun (Compare: Engl. a young lady, a young man, a young tree and Russ. , , ) some linguists (M. Ganshina, N. Vasilevskaia[10], A. I. Smirnitsky[11],G. Leech and J. Svartvik[12], I. G. Koshevaya[13], etc) conclude that in Modern English there is no grammatical gender. What English nouns now have is according to them natural gender1 that stipulates the sex of the referent or its lack of it. So all the nouns can be subdivided into three classes according to their lexical meaning: masculine (referred to as he) – names of male beings, feminine (referred to as she) – names of female beings, neuter (referred to as it) – names of lifeless things and abstract notions2: Masculine:father, brother, boy Feminine:mother, girl, sister Neuter:computer, lamp, beauty, friendship Now let us consider another point of view namely that of Blokh M. [14] that a bit differs from the one already mentioned above. In her book â€Å"Theoretical Grammar† she agrees that the gender division of noun in English is expressed as nounal classification (not as variable forms of words). The question remains, Blokh M. continues, whether this classification has any serious grammatical relevance. She gives some arguments that support the positive answer to this question (see below). In the conclusions to the chapter we can read: †¦ the category of gender in English is inherently semantic, i. . meaningful in so far as it reflects the actual features of the named objects. But the semantic nature of the category does not in the least make it into â€Å"non-grammatical†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ So, as we can see, Blokh M. considers the category of gender as a grammatical one. In the book she presents it by means of the binary privative opposition. (It is a type of opposition that is formed by a contrastive pair of members in which one member is characterized by the presence of a certain differential feature (â€Å"mark†), while the other member is characterized by the absence of this feature. The member in which the feature is present is called â€Å"marked† or â€Å"weak† or â€Å"positive† (â€Å"+†); the member in which the feature is absent is called â€Å"unmarked†, â€Å"weak† or â€Å"negative† (â€Å"-†)). It is expressed by the correlation of nouns with the personal pronouns of the third person: he, she, and it. The category is formed by two oppositions that are related to each other on a hierarchical basis. According to the upper opposition all nouns can be subdivided into two groups: person (human) nouns [strong member] and non-person (non-human) nouns [weak member]. Within the subset of person nouns the lower opposition divides them into masculine [weak member] and feminine [strong member] (Fig. 1) Figure 1:1 Oppositional structure of the category of gender[15] (according to Blokh M. ) â€Å"+†- strong member â€Å"-†- weak member A lot of English nouns can express both feminine and masculine person genders. They are referred to as nouns of the â€Å"common gender† (i. e. doctor, teacher, president, etc. ). This capability of expressing both genders makes the category variable. On the other hand, when there is no need to indicate the sex of the person referents of these nouns, they are used neutrally as masculine. Another interesting interpretation of gender in the English language found we in â€Å"A University Grammar of English† by R. Quirk,etc[16]. Its authors say that some pronouns are gender-sensitive (the personal he, she, it and the relative who, which), but others are not (they, some, these, etc). Basing on the pattern of pronoun substitutions for singular nouns they distinguish ten gender classes ( see Fig. 2). Figure 1:2 Gender classes[17] (according to Quirk R. , Greenbaum S. Leech G, etc) |Gender classes |Examples |Pronoun substitution | |animate | | | |masculine ______ |uncle___aunt____ |who –he________________ | |feminine_______ |doctor__ |who- she________________ | |dual___________ |baby____ |who – he/she____________ | |common _______ |family__ |who-he/she/? it, which – it__ | |collective_______ |bull____ |which- it, who – they______ | |masculine higher_ animal_________ | |which – it/ (? who) – he____ | |feminine higher__ animal_________ |cow____ | | |higher organism__ | |which – it/ (? ho)-she)____ | |lower animal____ |France__ | | | |ant_____ |which – it/she____________ | | | |which-it________________ | |Inanimate | | | |inanimate_______ |Box |Which –it______________ | There are certain rules about what nouns can be regarded to as masculine, feminine and neuter. Some times they are broken in order to achieve a certain goal. At this stage it would be quite logic if we consider some of such cases grouping them in two sets where 1. A masculine or a feminine noun is used as neuter; 2. A neuter noun is used as a masculine or a feminine one. 1. A masculine or a feminine noun is used as neuter (depersonification) Dealing with this topic the Russian linguist Screbnev I. gives among several examples this one[18]: â€Å"Where did you find it? †- asked Mord Em’ly of Miss Gilliken with a satirical accent. â€Å"Who are you calling ‘it’† – demanded Mr. Barden aggressively. P’r’aps you’ll kindly call me I’m and not it† (W. Partridge) [19] So here Miss Gilliken is referred to with the pronoun it . A feminine noun becomes neuter. By doing this the speaker shows his neglect, he is probably m ocking at her and considers that she is not worth being respected. 2. A neuter noun is used as either feminine or masculine. Let us start considering the second set with animate nouns that are regarded to as neuter, namely with animals. The main purpose of such usage according to Ganshina M. , Vasilevskaya N. [20] is to create a certain image. In tales, for example, the choice of gender greatly depends on the personal qualities the author ascribes to the animal: Wait a minute,† said the monkey proudly, â€Å"I can climb. † He ran quickly up the tree and threw the rich ripe fruit to the ground. Next day the Rabbit went to see his friend the sable: she had many daughters and forest people always came to see her. [21] In general they say all nouns denoting animals can be substituted by the pronoun it and so considered neuter: We found the horse in its stable. [22] And summarizing everything M. Ganshina and V. Vasilevskaya come to the following conclusion: the lower the ani mal in the scale, the more exclusively is the noun denoting it referred to in the neuter gender. And so nouns denoting birds, fishes, insects and reptiles and generally considered s neuter: The snake crept into its hole. [23] According to G. Leech we use he or she for animals when we think of them as having the personal qualities of human beings (e. g. family pets): Have you given Rover his dog-biscuits. [24] Alice Macline singles out two types of nouns: ones that indicate the sex of the animals and ones that don’t. Let us illustrate them by the following examples[25]: Nouns indicate the sex of the animals do not indicate the sex of the animals Male FemaleCommon words bull, steer(cowcattle stallion, gelding(marehorse boarsowpig, hog ramewesheep buckdoedeer cock, rooster, capon*henchicken gandergoosegoose drakeduckduck Mentioning the case when the sex of the animal is not indicated by the noun M. Ganshina says that the nouns that stand for the larger and bolder animals are generally associated with the masculine gender, nouns that stand for the smaller and weaker with feminine:[26] Masculine: elephant, horse, dog Feminine: cat, parrot, hare. The elephant lifted his mighty trunk. The cat has upset her milk[27]. Here goes one more observation made by M. Ganshina concerning names of animals, the latter agree with the feminine pronoun also when their maternal instinct is referred to: A bird betrays her nest when trying to conceal it. The swallow was teaching her young how to fly. But in the imaginary world of Literature where there are no such traditional associations the writer is free to choose the gender to refer to his/her character in case of personification. Here M. Ganshina gives an example from O. Wilde â€Å"Happy Prince† where the author makes the swallow of masculine gender and the reed of feminine: One night there flew over the city a little Swallow. His friends had gone away to Egypt six weeks before, but he had stayed behind, for he was in love with the most beautiful Reed. He had met her early in the spring as he was flying down the river after a big yellow moth[28]. Sometimes one can refer to some thing that one feels is necessary or very important to him or her, that he or she likes very much with the pronoun he or she. By doing this one as if humanifies () the thing one adores and in this way expresses his or her affection. In terms of gender the neuter noun becomes either feminine (in case it is referred to as she) or masculine (in case it is referred to as he) as in the example given by the Russian linguist Kolpakchi M. : [29]: My typewriter must be easy to reach, he is my second self. Speaking about abstract nouns it is worth mentioning that by changing the gender the English speaker can emphasize his attitude towards it, its importance. While dealing with it in her book Kolpakchi M. A. gives the following example: Peace raised her voice†¦ She says that the author used here the possessive pronoun her (that corresponds to the personal pronoun she) not by mere accident. He or she used it on purpose imagining Peace as a woman, an unwearying fighter for peace. The choice of gender is very subjective. To illustrate this Kolpakchi M. A. gives the following two examples: Because I could not step for death, He kindly stepped for me. E. Dickenson Death was not there. It must have gone around another street. E. Hemingway Speaking about the impending death E. Dickenson, for example, made the latter masculine. Hemingway, on the contrary, referred to it with the pronoun it making it neuter. And so the reader gets the idea according to Kolpakchi M. A. that E. Dickenson imagined death as a man and Hemingway who had seen a lot of cases of death considered it an ordinary thing not personifying it. Now let us consider one more thing, namely zoomorphisms. These are the words that denote animals, birds, or fantastic creatures but are used to refer to people. The Russian linguist I. V. Arnold says that in this case they get a metaphorical emotionally colored and often offensive connotation[30]. She mentions that it can be easily noticed if we compare direct and metaphorical meanings of the following words: ass, beast, bitch, donkey, duck, mule, pig, swine, tabby, toad, wolf, worm, etc. Here are two examples with such metaphorically employed words in the context that gives Arnold I. V while considering zoomorphisms[31]: 1. I was not going to have all the old tabbies bossing her around just because she is not what they call â€Å"our class† (A. Wilson The Middle Age) In this example the speaker calls the ladies she does charity work with old tabbies. Arnold I. V mentions that in the same chapter but a bit earlier the narrator says that she (the speaker) regarded them as fools and did not hesitate to tell him so. That supports the idea that the word tabbies is used here emotionally. 2. What were you talking about to that old mare downstairs? S. Delaney) While reading the sentence you as if see the speaker pronouncing it with scorn, probably hatred. Alongside with the emotional connotation these words can also have an expressive, stylistic (colloquial) one. I. V. Arnold notices that when the words that name animals have synonyms, the latter can differ in intensi ty and character of connotation[32]. She illustrate this by giving the following examples: pig, monkey, donkeyswine, ass, ape can express irony together with affection. can sound rude, offensive. Here goes an example provided by Arnold I. V. of a zoomorphism in the context: E. g. â€Å"Don’t be such a donkey, dear† (C. P. Snow) Negative connotations according to the same Russian linguist can be intensified by means of different epithets, emphatic constructions: you impudent pup, you filthy swine, you lazy dog, that big horse of a girl[33]. Now let us go on with inanimate nouns. They can be substituted by the pronouns which, it and so treated as neuter. But sometimes they can be personified and the nouns that denote them are referred to either as belonging to the masculine or the feminine gender. Here are some traditional associations that Ganshina M and Vasilevskaya N distinguish[34]: 1. The nouns moon, earth are considered feminine, sun masculine: It is pleasant to watch the sun in his chariot of gold, and the moon in her chariot of pearl. (Wilde) The earth awoke from her winter sleep. 2. Those abstract nouns that suggest such ideas as strength, fierceness, courage, etc are considered masculine (anger, death, fear). The ones that are associated with gentleness, beauty are referred to as feminine (spring, peace, dawn). Names of countries can be substituted by either the pronoun it or she. So they can be considered either neuter or feminine. The choice depends on their use. According to Leech G. if the country is seen as a political or cultural unit rather than as geographical unit it is treated as feminine: Last year France increased her exports by 10 per cent. [35] Otherwise it is treated as neuter: Ireland is an island, on three sides it is washed by the Atlantic Ocean1 In sport the name of a country according to Quirk R. can stand for the team that represent her and be referred to as a personal collective noun: France have improved their chance of winning the cup. [36] In this class Quirk also places ships and other entities towards which an affectionate attitude is expressed by a personal substitute (ship, boat, steamer, car, etc): What a lovely ship. What is she called? He also mentions that a proud owner of a sports car may refer to it as she or perhaps as he if the owner is female. When a nonpersonal abstract noun (neuter) in the sentence stands for a personal one it becomes he (masculine) or she (femenine). The Russian linguist Arnold I. V. entions that in case of transposition of nonpersonal abstract nouns (used as personal) some emotional or expressive connotations appear[37]. She gives the following examples: The chubby little eccentricity::a chubby eccentric child; He is a disgrace to his family::he is a disgraceful son; The old oddity ::a n odd old person. From the point of view of sociology it is worth mentioning the sexist language here while speaking about the gender. It can be defined as â€Å"speech and writing that make unnecessary distinctions based on sex† (A. Macline). Some people do not like using occupational terms that show the sex of the person who is doing the work. They substitute them for nonsexist equivalents[38] : TraditionalNonsexist stewardessflight attendant postmanpostal worker chairman chairperson or chair salesladysalesperson or salesclerk According to â€Å"Book of English Usage†[39] some of the most interesting changes that have taken place in the English language over the last 30 years have been driven by the desire to avoid sexism in the language. This reform movement differs from most previous ones based on a desire for English to be more logical, more efficient in expression. The book says that the reforms involving gender are explicitly political in intent and represent a quest for social justice rather than a wish for more consistent logic. The author of this chapter considers that this movement has been remarkably successful by historical standards. A glance at any newspaper or five minutes in front of the television news will produce evidence to show that people are changing their language to accommodate concerns about fairness to both sexes. It is undeniable that large numbers of men and women are uncomfortable using constructions that have been criticized for being sexist. Since there is little to be gained by offending people in one’s audience, it makes sense to educate oneself about the issues involved and to try to accommodate at least some of these concerns. The use of the sexist language can sometimes lead to ambiguity. There is an example with the term policemen in the book. While using it, it is not clear whether the speaker is excluding women police officers or whether he or she allows the term stand for the entire police force. Another problem is that not everyone perceives the sexist language the same way. People have different levels of sensitivity on these matters and everyone must find a level that suits him or her. Some people not object to using the generic he, but avoid the generic use of compounds ending in –man. Some are not comfortable using the form fellow, as in fellow colleagues, to refer to women. That complicates the matter. Finally, it is important to remember that avoiding sexist terms and constructions is no guarantee that what one has written will be free of gender bias. Sexist stereotypes, such as the assumption that all nurses are women or that all executive are men, can seem like the status quo – the way the world is- especially when one is distracted by a deadline or concerned about some other feature of his or her writing, such as organization or its tone. Sexist assumptions can be insidious. A headline that reads â€Å"Allegations Embroil Financier and Woman† may seem innocuous at first, but if the article shows the woman to be a financier as well, one have to wonder about the politics of the headline editor, who has assumed that a financier must naturally be a man and that a woman’s professional status is somehow not worth mentioning[40]. . 5. 2ylistic Potential of the category of number The category of number is expressed by the opposition of the plural form to the singular one. The strong member is the plural. Basing on the quantitative characteristics of the nouns two groups can be distinguished: countable and uncountab le. Countable nouns refer to people, places, or things that can be counted (one dollar/two dollars, one house, two houses). They [these countable nouns] can always be made plural usually by adding â€Å"s† or some other variation of the plural ending (student(s), countri(es), child(ren). A few words are the same in both the singular and plural forms (deer, sheep). Uncountable nouns often refer to food, beverages, substances, or abstractions (meat, tea, steel, information); some uncountable nouns (but not the abstract ones) can be made countable by adding a â€Å"count frame† in front of them (two gallons of milk, six blocks of ice, a bar of soap, a bunch of celery). The nouns of the second group are treated as either singular or plural and are usually referred to as singularia tantum (peace, love, friendship) [only singular] and pluralia tantum (scissors, trousers, spectacles) [only plural]. M. I. Blokh[41] refers to them as absolute singular and the absolute plural. Unfortunately, there is not clear-cut distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Some nouns can be both countable and uncountable even without adding count frames. For example, as an uncountable noun, experience refers to abstract knowledge or skill that can be gained by observing or participating in events. As a singular or plural countable noun (experience/experiences), the word â€Å"experience† refers to a particular instance (or instances) of participation in events. Similarly, the uncountable noun â€Å"glass† is a substance made from silicates; â€Å"a glass† (singular) is something you drink from; and â€Å"glasses† (plural) are frames containing lenses that correct imperfect vision[42]. There are other exceptions to the countable/uncountable distinction as well. Moreover, a noun that is countable in one’s native language may be uncountable in English, and vice-versa. For example, â€Å"watch† is countable in English but uncountable in Russian. However, as long as we are aware of these differences they probably will not cause us much difficulty. The Guide to Grammar and Writing [43] says that a special situation exists when a subject seems not to agree with its predicate. For instance, when we want each student to see his or her counselor (and each student is assigned to only one counselor), but we want to avoid that â€Å"his or her† construction by pluralizing, do we say â€Å"Students must see their counselors† or â€Å"Students must see their counselor†? The singular counselor is necesssary to avoid the implication that students have more than one counselor apiece. Do we say â€Å"Many sons dislike their father or fathers†? We don't mean to suggest that the sons have more than one father, so we use the singular father. Theodore Bernstein, in Dos, Don'ts and Maybes of English Usage, says that â€Å"Idiomatically the noun applying to more than one person remains in the singular when (a) it represents a quality or thing possessed in common (â€Å"The audience's curiosity was aroused†); or (b) it is an abstraction (â€Å"The judges applied their reason to the problem†), or (c) it is a figurative word (â€Å"All ten children had a sweet tooth†) (203). Sometimes good sense will have to guide you. We might want to say â€Å"Puzzled, the children scratched their head† to avoid the image of multi-headed children, but â€Å"The audience rose to their foot† is plainly ridiculous and about to tip over. In â€Å"The boys moved their car/cars,† the plural would indicate that each boy owned a car, the singular that the boys (together) owned one car (which is quite possible). It is also possible that each boy owned more than one car. One should be prepared for such situations, and consider carefully the implications of using either the singular or the plural. One might have to avoid the problem by going the opposite direction of pluralizing: moving things to the singular and talking about what each boy did[44]. There are cases when the opposition of the singular to the plural is neutralized when a change of meaning, attitude is involved. Let us consider some examples organizing them in the following groups: A) countable: the plural stands for the singular and vice versa B) Countable nouns: repetition groups C) Uncountable nouns: the plural form results in expressive transposition 1. ountable: the plural stands for the singular and vice versa The example below shows that such nouns as committee can be substituted either with the singular pronoun it or the plural pronoun they (without changing the number in the noun). R. Quirk and other authors of â€Å"A University Grammar of English† say that the differenc e reflects a difference in attitude: the singular stresses the non-personal collectivity of the group and the plural the personal individuality within the group: 1. The committee has met and it has rejected the proposal. The committee have met and they have rejected the proposal [45] Here are similar examples: 2. The family were gathered round the table. 3. The government are unanimous in disapproving the move of the opposition. In the subsequent cases (when the plural implies the singular and vice versa) the relation of the whole to its parts comes to the foreground. The varieties of transfer (‘whole –part’ and ‘part – whole’) are called synecdoche, which itself is the simplest case of metonymy: 4. â€Å"How dare he talk like that to ladies? † (there is only one lady present) 5. â€Å"Now what’s that? Reading books instead of working? † (the delinquent is certainly reading one book at the moment) 6. â€Å"This is what the student is supposed to know† (every student, a number of students, all those who study the subject: the singular stands for the plural)[46] 2. Countable nouns: repetition groups Indefinitely large quantity can be intensely presented by means of repetition groups. The nouns in them can be used either in the plural or in the singular: There were trees and trees all around us. I lit cigarette after cigarette. This variety of plural can be considered as a peculiar analytical form in the marginal sphere of the category of number[47]. (C)Uncountable nouns: the plural form results in expressive transposition As it has been mentioned above the English noun has both the singular and the plural forms. But there is a restriction on this general rule: proper, abstract, material nouns have just one form. And if the restriction is ignored some particular meanings, connotations are restricted. The plural form of the following nouns in bold type intensifies large quantity: E. g. : the sands of the desert; †¢ the fruits of the toil; †¢ Waters on a starry night are beautiful and fair. (W. Wordsworth) †¢ But where are the snows of yesterday? (F. Villon) It plays not the last role in making the description more graphic. M. I. Blokh calls it  "descriptive uncountable plural†. 1. 5. 3 Stylistic Potential of the category of case This category is expressed in the English language by the opposition of the genitive or possessive case to the common case. The strong member is the first one. Functionally, those two case systems relate to one another in a very peculiar way. If the common form is not restricted in its uses, the genitive one is. It is restricted to the functions that have a parallel expression by prepositional constructions. To illustrate the complex nature of the genitive Blokh M. distinguishes the following basic semantic types of the genitive[48] : †¢ â€Å"the genitive of possessor† E. g. : Christine’s living room (the living room belongs to Christine), Dad’s earnings, Kate and Jerry’s grandparents. †¢ â€Å"the genitive of integer† (â€Å"organic possession†) E. g. : Jane’s busy hands (the busy hands as part of Jane’s person), Patrick’s voice, the hotel’s lobby. †¢ â€Å"the genitive of agent† E. g. : the great man’s arrival (the great man arrives), Peter’s insistence, the hotel’s competitive position. â€Å"the genitive of patient† E. g. : the champion’s sensational defeat (the champion is defeated), Erick’s final expulsion. †¢ â€Å"the genitive of destinationâ₠¬  E. g. : women’s footwear (footwear for women), children’s verses, a fisher’s tent. In some postmodified noun phrases it is possible to use an ’s genitive by affixing the inflection to the final part of the postmodification rather than to the head noun itself. Thus: The teacher’s room The teacher of music’s room This group genitive is regularly used with such posmodifications as in someone else’s house, the heir apparent’s name, as well as prepositional phrases. Other examples involve coordinations: n hour and a half’s discussion a week or so’s sunshine. [49] The group genitive is not normally acceptable following a clause, though in colloquial use one sometimes hears examples like[50]: Old man what-do-you-call-him’s house has been painted A man I know’s son has been injured in a railway accident. In normal use, especially in writing, such s-genetives would be replaced by of-genitive: The son of a man I know has been injured in a railway accident. Now let us consider the combination â€Å"of + genitive case† (a friend of my brother’s) or â€Å"of + possessive pronoun† (a friend of mine). According to Ganshina M. , Vasilevskaya N. t has usually partitive, denoting â€Å"one of†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Here are some examples[51]: He is a friend of my brother’s (= one of my brother’s friends); It is a book of mine (=one of my book); It is a novel of Galsworthy’s (= one of his novels). The say that sometimes this meaning can be lost and the construction acquires emotional force (denoting praise, pleasure, displeasure, etc) or becomes purely descriptive: We all admired that clever remark of his. That cottage of my friend’s is surrounded by a beautiful garden. It was really surprising that he had been able to find this small island of ours at all. Is she a particular friend of yours? A friend of the doctor’s has arrived[52]. In Modern English the use of the genitive case is restricted chiefly to nouns denoting living beings. In the following examples provided by Ganshina M. , Vasilevskaya N. the use of the genitive case is closely connected with personification:[53] 1. with the nouns sun, moon, earth: The sun’s (his) rays are very hot at noon in summer. The moon’s (her) shadow swept over the lake. And each flower and herb on Earth’s dark breast rose from the dreams of its wintry rest. (Shelly) 2. with the nouns ship, boat, vessel The ship’s crew were all asleep. 3. with the names of countries: Moscow is Russian’s greatest scientific and cultural centre. 4. with abstract nouns (especially in poetry) Night’s candles are burnt out, and jocund day stands tiptoe on the misty mountain top. But that does not exhaust the stylistic potential of the genitive case. It was mentioned in  «  » by Arnold[54] that the use of the inflected form is characteristic of newspaper headlines not only because of space economy but also because this form emphasizes the attribute. Comparing Hollywood’s Studios Empty with The Studios of Hollywood empty they prefer the first variant. Now let us consider one more point of view regarding the ’s and of-phrase. E. G. Rappoport[55] says that ’s expresses indissoluble connection between the whole and its part. Of ,on the contrary, characterizes such a relation between the whole and its part when the latter is understood as something that exists on its own. The author gives then an example from the novel by Galsworthy â€Å"The White Monkey†. Michael and Soms are waiting for Fleur’s baby to be delivered: Michael had his right arm tight across his chest, Soames his left. They formed a pattern, thus side by side. (Both were rather strained. ) Then Soames says, â€Å"Listen! †Sounds – different – confused! Michael’s hand seized something, gripped it hard; it was cold, thin – the hand of Soames. So Mike at first perceived Soames’ hand (the hand of Soames) as an object (something) . It doesn’t come to him at once that he has gripped his father’s-in-law hand. Michael’s hand, on the contrary, represents a closer unity and it is equal to Michael. 1. 5. 4 Stylistic Potential of the category of article determination The category of article determination is not universally manifestable. The categorial forms â€Å"determination-indetermination† are neutralized when either the definite or indefinite article is omitted although it should precede the noun or the noun group. But the neutralization (absence of the article) is stylistically heterogeneous. Most depends on what sublanguage the text belongs, on the circumstances of communication. It is known that absence of articles is typical of headlines to newspaper columns (the sublanguage used in newspaper headlines is jocularly called Headlinese – by analogy with Chinese, Portuguese, etc)[56]: Prime Minister Talks on Middle East Events Police Seek Mystery Assailant Miner Sentenced to Death Picket Tried to Hold up Train Skrebnev I. M. gives also the following example that demonstrates absence: Quadruped. Graminivorous. Forty teeth, namely twenty-four grinders, four eye-teeth and twelve incisive. Sheds coat in the spring; in marshy countries sheds hoofs too. Hoofs hard but requiring to be shod with iron. Age known by marks in mouth†. That is an extract from the speech of an exemplary pupil of the famous â€Å"school of facts†, Bitzer by name (Hard Times by Charles Dickens). The boy, on being asked to define a horse, talks as if he were asked to reproduce word for word the text of some reference book (in books of this kind articles are often omitted). So there is no article in particular types of abbreviated language[57]: †¢ newspaper headlines (Girls dies in Fire) †¢ dictionary deginitions (Crystal = substance solidified in geometrical form) †¢ instructions (Read instructions first. Check plug. Select correct speed. ) †¢ telegrams (Sign contract immediately. Letter follows. ) Sometimes articles are omitted in careless colloquial speech. To demonstrate this Skrebnev I remembers the well-known scene I of Pygmalion by B. Shaw where one of the by-standers says in Eliza Doolittle’s defence: Girl never said a word to him (instead of The girl†¦) Articles are also eliminated in many Pidgins as well as in a number of languages like, for example, Russian. â€Å"Bring me dog†, would possibly be more meaningful in context of the moment, than in some literary sense[58]. Article causes a considerable amount of confusion for speakers of most of the world’s other languages, who seem to get on rather well without them. Even between British and American usage one finds subtle differences in nuance or emphasis. For example, Americans usually say someone is in the hospital, much as they could be at the bank or in the park. To the British this sounds like there is only one hospital, just as they would say a child is at school or a criminal in prison. This is because they are thinking more of the primary activities that take place within those institutions rather than the buildings in which they are housed. If, however, you are merely visiting one of these places, you are at the hospital, at the school or at the prison. Considering this category in â€Å"Theoretical grammar† M. I. Blokh distinguishes two levels of opposition. On the first level the definite article is contrasted with the indefinite and zero-article being the strong member because of its identifying and individualizing function, while the other forms are referred to as the weak member as they leave the feature (â€Å"identification†) unmarked. On the second level the two types of generalization are contrasted: relative and absolute. The first one is interpreted as the strong member (the indefinite article and the meaningful absence of the article as its analogue with uncountable nouns and nouns in the plural); the second one accordingly as the weak member of the opposition (the meaningful absence of the article). (Fig 1:3) Fig. 1:3 The category of article determination (according to Blokh M. ) Article determination IdentificationNon-identification The +A (N)/? – Relative generalizationAbsolute generalization (â€Å"Classification†)(â€Å"Abstraction†) A (N)/ ? 1 + ? 2 – The article may occasionally be used with an uncharacteristic nounal collocation. It is worth considering now some of such cases starting with instances that involve the indefinite article: According to Blokh M[59] it†¦ †¢ can be used with a nounal collocation of normally individualizing meaning: After all, you’ve got a best side and a worst side of yourself and it’s no good showing the worst side and harping on it. (A. Christie) †¢ It may occasionally be used with a unique referent noun: Ted Latimer from beyond her murmured: â€Å"The sun here isn’t a real sun†. The choice of the adjective in this case is rather subjective. To illustrate this Kolpakchi M. A. gives the following example. The moon that seemed to Onegin foolish, can seem to somebody else mocking or ominous. 60] †¢ Being used before a proper name it can indicate a person whose exact identity has not been established: There is a Miss Frost waiting for you[61]. †¢ Being used before a proper noun according to Arnold I. V. it can create an evaluative m etaphorical connotation: I do not claim to be a Caruso=I don’t think that I sing well; I do not claim to be Caruso=I don’t say that my name is Caruso[62]. The connotation can be either positive or negative. In the following example also provided by Arnold I. V. the evaluation is undoubtfully positive: A century ago there may have been no Leibnitz, but there was a Gauss, a Faraday and a Darwin. (N. Viner Cybernetics) The indefinite article in this case emphasizes appreciation of their role in the development of science. However, very often when the indefinite article stands before a proper name of an undistinguished person it may render a negative connotation (it can point out, for example, to some demerits,etc). Here Arnold I. V. gives the following example: He was not a Bagster (GGreen The main point). -He does not want to be like Bagster. Being used before a proper noun the indefinite article can reveal one more meaning, namely belonging to a famous family. In this case it always reveals an evaluative connotation: Elisabeth was a Tudor – Elisabeth possessed some family traits of the noble kin. Here go some other cases that involve the definite article: Proper nouns are names of particular people, places, and things (John F. Kennedy, New York City, Notre Dame Cathedral), and for that reason they are inherently definite. Nevertheless, the definite article is not used with most singular proper nouns. For example, if you are referring to your friend George, you wouldn't say â€Å"The George and I went to a movie last night. † The only times â€Å"the† is used with a name like this are: a) when the speaker wants to be emphatic, as in â€Å"the Elizabeth Taylor† (to emphasize that you are talking about the famous actress, and not about another woman with the same name)[63]. Here goes another example provided by BlokhM Know my partner? Old Robinson. Yes, the Robinson. Don’t you know? The notorious Robinson. (J Conrad Lord Jim) Being used with a proper noun, it refers to one particular individual[64]: Is he the Stephen Spielberg, the film director? b) when the speaker is actually using the name as a common noun, as in â€Å"the George that I introduced you to last night† (the real meaning of this phrase is â€Å"the man named George†¦ â€Å"). Plural names, on the other hand, are always preceded by the: the Johnsons, the Bahamas, etc[65]. Now let us consider two other cases that involve the zero article: †¢ It may be occasionally used with an ordinary concrete noun the emantic nature of which stands in sharp contradiction to the idea of uncountable generalization[66]: The glasses had a habit of slipping down her button nose which did not have enough bridge to hold them up (S. M. Disney) †¢ The Russian linguist Arnold I. V. m entions that together with countable nouns it makes them abstract and considers the following example: There head falls forward, fatigued at evening, And dreams of home, Waving from window, spread of welcome, Kissing of wife under single sheet; But waking sees Bird-flocks nameless to him, through doorway voices Of new men making another love. In this poem by V. Oden Wanderer extreme tiredness of the Wanderer is rendered according to Arnold I. V. by means of abstract images. This fuzziness helps the reader to feel that home and happiness are just a dream. In all these cases that illustrate the peculiar cases involving the article traces of transposition can be seen. Chapter 2 Analysis of examples taken from fiction on the basis of considered theoretical phenomena Being a practical one Chapter2 illustrates the points mentioned in the previous theoretical chapter by means of about 200 instances. The latter have been taken mostly from works of English and American authors that belong to the belles-lettres style (tales, poetry, short stories). The aim of this chapter is to put the considered theory into practice showing the way the phenomena have been dealt with work out. All the examples were considered in the following way: †¢ Examples regarding the category of gender (2. 1) Here we distinguish two groups: A. A neuter noun used as feminine; B. A neuter noun used as masculine, explaining the purpose of changing the gender. †¢ Examples regarding the category of number (2. 2) In this paragraph we consider some cases when proper, abstract, material nouns are used in the plural form. †¢ Examples regarding the category of case (2. 3) Here we consider cases when inanimate nouns take the s-genitive. †¢ Examples regarding the category of article determination (2. 4) In this paragraph we consider cases when the article is used in the linguistic environment that is alien to it. 1. Analysis of the examples regarding the category of gender As it has been already mentioned in the theoretical chapter the gender division of noun in English is expressed as nounal classification (not as variable forms of words) which has grammatical relevance. The category is expressed by the correlation of nouns with the personal pronouns of the third person singular (he, she, it). That is why the latter accompanies all the considered nouns in the examples of this paragraph. Those that are referred to as he are traditionally considered as masculine, and so accordingly there can be distinguished also feminine (referred to as she) and neuter (referred to as it). There are certain rules about what nouns can be regarded to as masculine, feminine or neuter. Sometimes they are broken in order to achieve a certain goal. Such cases are considered in this paragraph, namely when a normally considered neuter noun is used as feminine or masculine. All the examples are divided accordingly into two groups which are considered separately: 1. A neuter noun is used as feminine 2. A neuter noun is used as masculine. In each subset we consider (A) cases where the choice of gender is determined by some traditional associations and (B) examples where this choice is free. It is also worth mentioning that all the subsequent instances are connected with personification. 1. A neuter noun is used as feminine A. Traditional choice of gender In the following example the word vessel (that is neutrally referred to as it) is accompanied by the possessive pronoun her that corresponds to the personal pronoun she. This is actually one of the ways of expressing an affectionate attitude towards any kind of vessel, vehicle, which is traditionally, associated with the personal pronoun she: ? There lies the port; the vessel puffs her sail†¦. (A. Tennyson The lady of Sharlott) The same thing will illustrate the following example: ? And why not? he would have asked. If he hadn’t watched every penny all his life he wouldn’t be the owner of the fine ship lying alongside now. What if she was only a small coastal cargo-ship grossing a mere 2053 tons? She was rated Al at Lloyd’s, she would be sailing within the hour with a full cargo, and she was his. He owned and commanded her. (Porteus R. S. A Deal with Father) Here the word of the neuter gender ship is referred to as she and so it becomes feminine. We see that the owner is very proud that â€Å"he owned and commanded her† (personification in this case emphasizes this). Here goes another example from the same short story where the word ship is also used as a feminine noun: ? In the first grey streaks of dawn they sighted her – a pitiful, crippled thing , so far down by the head that the bigger seas broke clean over her foredeck. Captain Wellshot knew her well. Only a few hours ago she had been a fast modern cargo-ship of 10,000 tons, the latest addition to the Greek line. Now she lay with bowed head, wallowing sluggishly as if she no longer had the energy to rise to the seas, content to let them wash over her till they engulfed her completely. From a seaman’s point of view she was nothing but a menace to navigation until she took the final plunge. (Porteous R. S. A Deal with Father) The image of the sinking ship is as if personified here (Captain Wellshot knew her well†¦ She lay with bowed head†¦ ) In the subsequent example the word Moon (that is neutrally referred to as it) is also accompanied by the possessive pronoun her that corresponds to the personal pronoun she. That has a lot to do with personification that is also realized by capitalizing the word Moon and by using with it the participle foretelling (that usually used with animate nouns): ? I see the old Moon in her lap, foretelling The coming-on of rain and squally blast †¦ (Coleridge S. T. Dejection: An Ode) Traditionally such abstract nouns that suggest such ideas as gentleness, beauty, etc are associated with the feminine gender. The subsequent three sentences with examples illustrate this. In the first one the word autumn that is normally referred to as it is substituted by the personal pronoun she. So being a neuter noun it is used as feminine. That makes us imagine a nice woman who â€Å"gave golden fruit to every garden†: The Autumn gave golden fruit to every garden, but to the Giant’s garden she gave none. (Oscar Wilde The Selfish Giant) In the second one the word spring (that is neutrally referred to as it) is substituted by the personal pronoun she and is also referred to by the possessive pronoun her. The personification is realized not only by making the word feminine but also by using it in the possessive case by means of ’s (that is usually used with animate nouns) and by applying to it such words as pantings, kisses, to breathe that are characteristic of human being: ? If spring’s voluptuous pantings when she breathes, Her first sweet kisses, have been dear to me†¦ (Shelley P. B. Alastor or the spirit of solitude) In the third sentence the word Nature (that is neutrally referred to as it) is accompanied by the possessive pronoun her that corresponds to the personal pronoun she. The personification in this case is realized not only by it but also by capitalizing the considered noun and by the accompanying words wedding garment, shroud that are employed metaphorically: ? O Lady! We receive but what we give, And in our life alone does Nature live: Ours is her wedding-garment, ours her shroud! (Coleridge S. T. Dejection: An Ode) B. Free choice of gender In the imaginary world of literature when there are no such traditional associations, the choice of gender greatly depends on the personal qualities the author ascribes to the animal or to any object that becomes alive. The personification in the sentence below is realized not only by referring to the considered noun with the possessive pronoun her but also capitalizing it and by applying to it such phrases as to bow one’s head, to mind one’s charge (that are normally performed by human beings): ? The Cloud descended and the Lily bow’d her modest head And went to mind her numerous charge among the verdant grass. (W. Blake The Book of Thel) The neuter noun snow is referred in the following example by means of the possessive pronoun her that corresponds to the personal pronoun she. The change of the neuter gender into feminine results in personification. The latter is also realized by means of capitalization of the noun and the metaphorically applied to it noun cloak: The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the Trees silver. (Oscar Wilde The Nightingale and the Rose) Personification in the example below is realized by referring to the noun duck as she and also by making her speak as people do (â€Å"You will never be in the best society unless you can stand on your heads,† she kept saying to them). The neuter noun duck is used as feminine. As a result an image of a nice mother who was teaching her children has been created: ? The little ducks were swimming about in the pond, looking just like a lot of yellow canaries, and their mother [duck], who was pure white with real red legs, was trying to teach them how to stand on their heads in the water. You will never be in the best society unless you can stand on your heads,† she kept saying to them; and every now and then she showed them how it was done. (Oscar Wilde The Devoted Friend ) In the following two sentences the word Nightingale (which belongs to the neuter gender) becomes feminine by referring to it as she, her. Personification in this case is also realized by some metaphorically employed words that accompany the considered noun such as to wonder, to understand, to think. As a result the image of a kind creature that is not indifferent to the grief of others is created: ? From her nest in the Holm-oak tree the Nightingale heard him, and she looked out through the leaves and wondered. But the Nightingale underst